list of pharaohs of ancient Egypt
Pharaohs were kings of ancient Egypt. Though the term pharaoh referring to the king was not used in ancient Egypt until the New Kingdom period (c. 1539–c. 1077 bce), it is now used for all kings of ancient Egypt on the basis of its use in the Hebrew Bible. The list below includes Egyptian rulers and their regnal years from the Predynastic period (prior to c. 2900 bce) to the Roman period (beginning 30 bce). The division of pharaohs into dynasties dates to Egyptian priest Manetho’s 3rd-century-bce history of Egypt, which survives in fragmentary form in some of the works of the later historians Josephus, Julius Africanus, Eusebius, and George Syncellus. All dates given in this list are in years bce. Dates beginning in the mid-7th century are firmly established, as they fit into the well-known chronology of the greater ancient Middle East in the 1st millennium bce. Scholars disagree on the exact dates of kings prior to this time. Names of female pharaohs are marked with (f). For a list of dynasties of ancient Egypt, see the list of dynasties of ancient Egypt.
Dynasty 0 (prior to c. 2900)
Archaeological evidence suggests that there were a number of kings who ruled parts of Egypt prior to the unification of the country under the 1st dynasty; these kings are sometimes collectively referred to as Dynasty 0. During this period, also known as the Predynastic period, kings ruled smaller territories from various capital cities. The dates of the kings’ reigns are unknown, although their names are preserved in fragments of early writing. The kings of Dynasty 0 are dated to the late centuries of the 4th millennium or to the 30th century, since their names are preserved in the early system of hieroglyphic writing that developed at this time. Scholars have been able to read a few of the kings’ Egyptian names from this early period, including Ny-Hor, Hat-Hor, Iry-Hor, and Ny-Neit. Several others are known by the signs used in their names, such as “Crocodile,” “Bird with vertical sign,” and “Scorpion.” The order in which these kings reigned is uncertain.
