A recent study by an international team of researchers has revealed a 2,000-year-old corruption scandal, offering a rare glimpse into Roman judicial practices in the provinces of Judea and Arabia during a period of social and political upheaval. The study, published in the journal Tyche, was conducted by scholars from the Austrian Academy of Sciences, the University of Vienna, and the Hebrew University of Jerusalem.

Papyrus Cotton. Credit: Israel Antiquities Authority

The document is a Greek-language papyrus spanning 133 lines and is the longest of its kind ever found in the Judean Desert. Initially misclassified as Nabataean, the text lay unnoticed in the Scrolls Laboratory of the Israel Antiquities Authority until its rediscovery in 2014 by Professor Emerita Hannah Cotton-Paltiel of the Hebrew University. Recognizing its historical and legal significance, she ᴀssembled a team of experts, including Dr. Anna Dolganov from the Austrian Academy of Sciences, Professor Fritz Mitthof from the University of Vienna, and Dr. Avner Ecker from the Hebrew University, to decipher the intricate text.

The papyrus, most likely written by Roman prosecutors, documents preparations for a judicial case involving two defendants, Gedaliah (also known as Gadalias) and Saul (Saulos). The pair were accused of orchestrating a sophisticated tax fraud scheme involving the falsification of documents and the fraudulent sale and release of slaves to evade Roman taxes. Gedaliah, a notary’s offspring and most probably a citizen of Rome, had a documented record of delinquent behavior, including violence, extortion, and instigation of rebellion. Saul, his accomplice, handled the logistics of the fraudulent transactions.

The document reveals the strategies employed by prosecutors, including evidence ᴀssessment and preemptive counterarguments, providing an unprecedented look into Roman legal procedures.

The Oval Forum in Jerash, and the Cardo Maximus. Credit: Azurfrog, CC BY-SA 3.0

The period during which the case transpired makes it significant, falling between the tumultuous years following the Jewish Diaspora revolt (115–117 CE) and the revolt under Bar Kokhba (132–136 CE). The mention in the papyrus of important figures, including Emperor Hadrian and the governor of Judea, Tineius Rufus, stands as testimony to the heightened tensions of the time.
What seems apparent from the papyrus is that Roman authorities viewed the defendants’ actions as potentially rebellious and connected them with larger conspiracies against the empire.

The penalties for such crimes were severe under Roman law, ranging from forced labor to execution. The case also raises questions about the motivations behind the defendants’ actions, as freeing slaves does not appear to have been a profitable endeavor. Scholars speculate that the scheme may have involved human trafficking or the Jewish duty to redeem enslaved co-religionists.

The document was likely stored in a Judean Desert cave during the Bar Kokhba Revolt, although its exact journey and preservation remain a mystery.

More information: Hebrew University of Jerusalem

Anna Dolganov, Fritz Mitthof, Hannah M. Cotton, Avner Ecker, (2023). Forgery and Fiscal Fraud in Iudaea and Arabia on the Eve of the Bar Kokhba Revolt: Memorandum and Minutes of a Trial before a Roman Official (P.Cotton). Tyche, Bd. 38. doi.org/10.25365/tyche-2023-38-5