Archaeologists in Germany have found evidence that contradicts long-held views about the colors available to Europe’s Paleolithic populations. In Mühlheim-Dietesheim, researchers have discovered traces of azurite—the vivid blue mineral pigment—on a stone artifact dating back approximately 13,000 years. The find is the oldest known use of blue pigment in Europe and sheds new light on how early humans employed color in shaping cultural expression.

Results from the PIXE analysis, showing one of the mapped areas of blue residue (A) and the corresponding copper heatmap for this area (B). Credit: I. Wisher et al., Antiquity (2025)

An international team of researchers from Aarhus University and collaborating insтιтutions in Germany, Sweden, France, and Denmark made the discovery. In their recent paper published in the journal Antiquity, they confirmed the material as azurite, a mineral previously unreported at European Paleolithic sites.

Prehistoric artists were previously thought by archaeological consensus to work almost exclusively with red and black pigments. This was attributed either to the scarcity of blue minerals in nature or to their perceived lack of visual appeal. The fact that blue did not turn up in any of the remaining cave paintings seemed to support this ᴀssumption. But the presence of azurite on this artifact suggests that early humans knew the mineral and deliberately processed and used it in a way that left little trace in the archaeological record.

The stone carrying the pigment was initially thought to be nothing more than an oil lamp. Closer inspection revealed that the surface was likely used for grinding or mixing azurite powder in some manner of palette. The new ᴀssumption suggests preparation and intentionality, and this could be a sign of creative or symbolic practices beyond the surviving wall art of the period.

The three areas of blue residue present on the sandstone layer of the stone artefact from Mühlheim-Dietesheim. Credit: I. Wisher et al., Antiquity (2025)

Because no paintings made with blue pigment during the Paleolithic have ever been discovered, researchers believe the pigment was possibly used for body decoration, coloring textiles, or some other perishable applications. Those uses, though invisible to archaeologists, may have been of great importance for social idenтιтy, ritual, or status marking.

The rarity of blue in nature adds to the significance of this discovery. Blue has long been an expensive color that commands status due to the difficulty of sourcing and preparing it. That Paleolithic communities in central Europe set out in pursuit of azurite indicates knowledge of mineral properties, along with a desire to expand their color range.

Experts note that the find requires a rethinking of the role of color in prehistory. Far from being limited to a narrow range, Paleolithic humans may have had access to a broader, more vibrant palette than has been ᴀssumed. The appearance of blue recovered at Mühlheim-Dietesheim indicates cultural practices far beyond cave art, foreshadowing aesthetic choice and symbolic behavior now largely invisible in the archaeological record.

More information: Wisher, I., Birch, T., Andreasen, R., Canosa, E., Norrehed, S., Reguer, S., … Riede, F. (2025). The earliest evidence of blue pigment use in Europe. Antiquity, 1–16. doi:10.15184/aqy.2025.10184