Archaeologists in Southeast Asia have unearthed what may be the oldest mummies in the world, dating back as far as 12,000 years. The pre-Neolithic burials, found throughout southern China, Vietnam, the Philippines, Laos, Thailand, Malaysia, and Indonesia, reflect an enduring tradition of mummification among early hunter-gatherer societies.

Examples of hyper-flexed burials with partially burned bones from southern China and Indonesia. (A and B) Burial M35, a young male from Liyupo in Guangxi, with its partially burned skull. Credit: H. Hung et al. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. U.S.A. (2025) / CC BY 4.0

Unlike the prostrate, supine burial poses typical of later Neolithic populations, the ancient humans here often buried individuals in тιԍнтly crouched or squatting positions, with some showing evidence of post-mortem dismemberment and burning. Analyzes reveal that numerous corpses were intentionally smoke-dried above fires, an identical mummification process to the one used by Indigenous Australians and New Guinea Highlands populations today. This discovery predates other well-known early mummies, including those of the Chinchorro culture in northern Chile, dating from around 7,000 years ago, and Ancient Egyptian mummies, from around 4,500 years ago.

The study, published in the journal Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences, examined 54 burials from 11 archaeological sites. Advanced techniques like X-ray diffraction and Fourier-transform infrared spectroscopy allowed researchers to study the chemical and structural changes in the skeletal remains, confirming extensive exposure to heat characteristic of smoke-drying. The findings indicate that artificial mummification was already widespread across a wide region of Southeast Asia in the Terminal Pleistocene and early Holocene.

Recorded hunter-gatherer sites with flexed and squatting burials in Southeastern Asia from the Late Pleistocene to the Middle Holocene. Credit: H. Hung et al. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. U.S.A. (2025) / CC BY 4.0

Among the most notable sites are Zengpiyan Cave in northeastern Guangxi, China, where 26 pre-Neolithic burials in flexed or squatting postures were found; the Huiyaotian shell mound, also in Guangxi, yielded 169 burials, many of whom were flexed on their side or crouched. At northern Vietnam’s Con Co Ngua site, 267 burials were found, the vast majority of which were squatting. At southern Sumatra’s Gua Harimau, pre-Neolithic flexed burials and later Neolithic and Iron Age burials were encountered. The vast majority of the older burials were positioned carefully, occasionally with stones placed over the body, suggesting complex mortuary rituals and culturally significant postures.

Examples of Early and Middle Holocene human burials from southern China. This figure shows six human burials from Huiyaotian in Nanning and Liyupo in Long’an, both shell-midden sites located in the Guangxi Zhuang Autonomous Region. All individuals are in flexed positions, with several exhibiting hyper-flexed postures (A and E: male, B–D and F: female). Credit: H. Hung et al. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. U.S.A. (2025) / CC BY 4.0

The research sheds light on longstanding cultural beliefs and funeral practices among early Southeast Asian hunter-gatherers, who appear to have craniofacial and genetic relationships with New Guinea and Australian Indigenous groups. Some of the positions, especially the hyper-flexed ones, would have required extraordinary care to achieve, indicating the technical skill and ritual significance invested in these ancient funeral practices.

These mummies are more than ancient artifacts; they represent an unprecedented continuity of funeral practice spanning more than 10,000 years, demonstrating how smoking the ᴅᴇᴀᴅ is a deeply rooted cultural practice. The findings also refute hypotheses that complex mummification began in the Americas or Egypt and place Southeast Asia at the center of ancient human innovation in mortuary care.

More information: H. Hung et al. (2025) Earliest evidence of smoke-dried mummification: More than 10,000 years ago in southern China and Southeast Asia, Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. U.S.A. 122 (38) e2515103122, doi:10.1073/pnas.2515103122