A research team led by Columbia University historian Richard Bulliet, along with engineers Lee Alacoque from the University of Illinois Urbana-Champaign and Kai James from Georgia Insтιтute of Technology, provides a compelling theory on the origin of the wheel.
Evolution of the wheel-and-axle system. Credit: Royal Society Open Science (2024)
Their findings point to ancient copper miners in the Carpathian Mountains as the creators of the first wheeled devices, specifically for transporting ore. The study’s insights, supported by computational modeling, challenge conventional theories about the wheel’s invention, previously linked to the potter’s wheel in Mesopotamia around 4000 BCE.
Bulliet and his colleagues used design science and computational mechanics to explore how miners may have adapted simple rollers—logs stripped of limbs—to gradually transform into wheel-and-axle systems suitable for narrow mine tunnels. This study suggests that the unique mining environment, with its тιԍнт and winding paths, exerted evolutionary pressures on the technology, prompting a gradual shift from basic rollers to a more advanced, maneuverable wheel-and-axle system.
In their model, the researchers mapped out three critical stages in the evolution of the wheel. Initially, rollers were grooved to prevent ore-laden boxes from slipping off. This modification allowed workers to avoid constantly repositioning rollers along the transport path, thus simplifying the hauling process. The second innovation involved widening the ends of these grooved rollers, which led to a rudimentary axle capable of accommodating a single or double set of wheels.
Artifacts depicting ancient wheel designs. (a) Sketch of a four-wheeled clay mug from the Boleráz culture. (b) Drawing depicting a clay model from the Boleráz culture. (c) The Ljubljana Marshes Wheel, the oldest known transport wheel, discovered in Slovenia. (d) A wheeled dog figurine from pre-Columbian Mesoamerica created in the eighth century CE. Credit: Royal Society Open Science (2024)
Over time, miners found ways to improve this design, attaching wheels independently to axles—a refinement that enhanced maneuverability and allowed for better navigation over rough terrain. According to the researchers, this progression unfolded over approximately 500 years.
This gradual evolution, according to the study, reflects a nuanced view of technological development, emphasizing trial, adaptation, and environmental influence rather than the sudden invention often portrayed in popular accounts. “Our findings demonstrate the critical role that environmental factors played in the creation of wheeled technology,” Bulliet and his team explain, noting that these evolutionary steps made it possible for the wheel to address practical challenges specific to mining, such as friction reduction and efficient load movement within confined spaces.
Ancient spoked wheel from 2nd millennium BCE, from the collection excavated by the ziggurat of Chogha Zanbil, Iran, on display at The National Museum of Iran. Credit: Youngrobv via Flickr
The Carpathian Mountains provide additional archaeological evidence supporting the mining theory. Excavations in the region have uncovered over 150 clay models of four-wheeled carts, dating to approximately 3600 BCE and ᴀssociated with the Boleráz culture. Remarkably, these miniature carts likely served as drinking vessels, indicating a cultural familiarity with wheeled structures. These artifacts, according to the researchers, resemble small wheeled baskets that miners would have used to move ore, hinting at a practical origin for the design.
The Copper Age setting in the Carpathians adds another layer of support to the theory. As copper extraction grew increasingly challenging in this area, efficient methods for transporting heavier loads of ore would have been essential. The study also cites examples of wheeled artifacts from adjacent regions and cultures, such as the Ljubljana Marshes wheel from Slovenia, dated between 5,100 and 5,350 years old, as well as wheeled objects from North Africa and Asia, all highlighting the widespread impact of wheeled technology in early human societies.
Ljubljana Marshes Wheel with axle (oldest wooden wheel yet discovered). Credit: Petar Milošević (CC BY-SA 4.0)
By replicating early designs in a virtual environment, the authors ᴀssessed stress distribution and elastic responses, demonstrating how grooves in rollers could reduce friction and improve transport efficiency within a mine’s narrow confines. “This scientific approach allows us to connect ancient engineering choices to practical advantages in an unprecedented way,” they note, suggesting that a similar methodology could help unravel other technological mysteries from prehistory.
The study reshapes our understanding of the wheel’s origins, suggesting that it was not the invention of any one culture or individual but rather the result of collaborative efforts shaped by environmental pressures and adaptive problem-solving.
More information: Alacoque, L. R., Bulliet, R. W., & James, K. A. (2024). Reconstructing the invention of the wheel using computational structural analysis and design. Royal Society Open Science, 11(10), 240373. doi:10.1098/rsos.240373
